Parenting & Attachment Styles: The Impact on Child Development & Relationships
by Ria Ravi
Exploring parenting styles and understanding attachment patterns together play pivotal roles in shaping development and influencing future relationships. Parenting styles, ranging from authoritative to permissive, deeply impact a child's emotional and social growth, molding their abilities to form interpersonal connections and regulate emotions. Concurrently, attachment theory elucidates how early interactions with caregivers sculpt attachment styles—secure, anxious, avoidant, or disorganized—profoundly influencing our approaches to intimacy and trust in adulthood. By delving into these dynamics, we gain insights that inform personal growth, enhance interpersonal skills, and foster healthier, more fulfilling relationships throughout our lives (Cleveland Clinic, 2022).
Parenting styles encompass a spectrum of approaches that influence children's development and behavior:
Authoritative parenting combines warmth and responsiveness with clear boundaries and expectations, fostering independent, socially adept children
Authoritarian parenting is characterized by strict rules, high demands, and low warmth, often leading to obedient but less socially competent offspring.
Permissive parenting involves warmth and indulgence but lacks structure and discipline, resulting in children with poor self-regulation and boundary-setting skills.
Lastly, neglectful parenting is marked by low warmth and involvement, neglecting children's emotional and physical needs, which can lead to various developmental challenges and attachment issues (Sanvictores & Mendez, 2022).
These diverse parenting styles significantly shape children's personalities, behaviors, and relationships throughout their lives (Hong & Park, 2012). More specifically, we will touch on their roles in the development of individual attachment styles.
Attachment styles greatly influence how individuals approach intimacy, trust, and communication in their interactions with others, impacting the quality and stability of their relationships:
Secure attachment is characterized by a sense of comfort and security in close relationships, marked by trust in caregivers and healthy emotional regulation.
Anxious attachment involves a fear of abandonment and a tendency to seek excessive reassurance, often accompanied by worries about rejection and clingy behavior.
Conversely, avoidant attachment leads individuals to avoid intimacy and rely on independence, struggling with expressing emotions and maintaining long-term connections.
Disorganized attachment combines elements of anxious and avoidant behaviors, resulting in erratic and inconsistent relationship patterns (Cleveland Clinic, 2022.).
There are a plethora of studies that underscore the varying outcomes of different parenting and attachment styles in regards to relationship satisfaction, coping with trauma, and overall development and well-being:
Relationship satisfaction
The association between parenting styles, attachment styles, and relationship satisfaction, as explored in the systematic review “Parental Attachment and Peer Relationships in Adolescence,” highlights the profound impact of early attachment experiences on later social interactions and peer relationships. In the 1960s, renowned psychologist John Bowlby's attachment theory laid the groundwork for understanding the emotional bond between children and their caregivers (Delgado et al., 2022). Subsequent research, notably Mary Ainsworth's work, further differentiated various attachment types, such as secure, avoidant, and ambivalent attachment, contributing to a deeper comprehension of attachment dynamics. The study discussed emphasizes the importance of parental roles, marital relationship quality, and social support in shaping attachment styles. Moreover, it underscores the extension of attachment theory to other life stages, notably adolescence, and adulthood, illustrating the enduring influence of early attachment experiences. Findings consistently support Bowlby's theory, indicating that secure attachment in childhood fosters positive relationships with peers in adolescence. Adolescents with secure attachment demonstrate ease in seeking and giving support, fostering a sense of safety and intimacy within peer relationships. Conversely, insecure attachment styles, including avoidant and ambivalent attachment, are associated with difficulties in forming intimate peer relationships and managing conflicts effectively. Adolescents with insecure attachment may exhibit negative affect, hostility, and difficulties in social interactions. Gender differences further influence attachment patterns, with girls typically seeking emotional support and boys engaging more in social activities with peers. Cultural values and gender roles developed in childhood contribute to these differences. The quality of the marital relationship between parents also plays a significant role in attachment development, with a positive marital relationship associated with the development of secure attachment in adolescents. Moreover, peer attachment significantly impacts friendship experiences, with dyads comprising secure attachment individuals experiencing more positive friendships characterized by connection, support, and fluid conversations. However, the article acknowledges limitations, including the need for clearer differentiation between types of insecure attachment and further exploration of disorganized attachment. Additionally, future studies should consider the impact of online friendships on attachment styles given the prevalence of internet interactions among adolescents. In summary, the article underscores the enduring influence of early attachment experiences on later relationship satisfaction, emphasizing the critical role of parenting styles, attachment dynamics, and peer relationships in shaping adolescent development (Delgado et al., 2022).
Coping with trauma
The study titled, “Why and how the early-life environment affects development of coping behaviours,” addresses the complex interplay between early-life experiences, parenting styles, and coping behaviors in adulthood. It highlights the understudied relationship between external events and coping behaviors, emphasizing the need for a deeper understanding of the developmental processes involved. Parenting styles, particularly maternal effects and imprinting, are identified as significant factors in generating intergenerational effects on coping behaviors. The discussion points out that while maternal effects have received more attention, imprinting also plays a crucial role in shaping coping behaviors in juveniles. The maternal environment, including the level and quality of care provided, can imprint on offspring, affecting their stress reactivity and coping mechanisms. Imprinting from maternal care involves epigenetic changes, which essentially are environmentally-triggered modifications to one’s genetic information. Specifically, genetic information related to stress responses can be altered due to maternal care and have long-term effects on an individual's behavior. The article calls for more targeted studies focusing on understanding the processes through which individuals ascertain and integrate external information, leading to the development of coping patterns. It suggests examining the complex interactions between life history and developmental processes, such as nutrition influencing body weight which in turn affects boldness. Essentially, one’s nutrition should impact their physical fitness which in turn impacts their ability to take on stress and other risks. Those with a higher level of fitness may serve as more prepared to cope with stressful situations than those historically undernourished. Furthermore, the discussion emphasizes the importance of studying parental effects and stress under natural or semi-natural conditions, rather than solely in the laboratory settings in which they conducted their study. It advocates for a more holistic approach to understanding the ontogeny of coping behaviors across different species and fields of study. The need to distinguish between sensitivity to receiving necessary input and sensitivity to negative influences, such as stress or malnutrition, is highlighted. The discussion stresses the importance of considering early-life influences within their ecological context and moving away from generic studies of "stress." Overall, the discussion section underscores the complexity of early-life influences on coping behaviors and calls for interdisciplinary collaboration to advance our understanding in this critical area of research (Langenhof & Komdeur, 2018).
Development
The early stages of a child's life serve as a foundation for lifelong interactions and have profound effects on their development. Parents play a pivotal role in this process, often needing to interpret their child's needs through behavior due to limited language ability. Attachment theory, pioneered by John Bowlby, highlights the significance of secure attachments between caregivers and infants, fostering exploration and independence while ensuring a secure base for the child's ventures. Mary Ainsworth's "strange situation" experiment further elucidated attachment patterns, categorizing infants into secure, avoidant, and ambivalent styles, with subsequent recognition of disorganized attachment. Ainsworth conducted a social experiment where she assessed a child’s reactions when they are briefly separated from their primary caregiver and then reunited. How the children react to the situation is heavily influenced by the sort of parenting style and parental environment they’ve been exposed to thus far. Responsive caregiving, characterized by attentiveness to a child's signals and needs, is crucial for healthy attachment formation. Studies suggest that securely attached children exhibit better social and communication skills, while insecure attachment may lead to anxiety and fewer coping abilities. Furthermore, parenting styles, as defined by Baumrind, influence child development, with authoritative parenting proving most effective in promoting resilience against negative influences. More specifically, authoritative parenting, which can be considered reflective parenting, based on understanding the child's underlying motivations, emerges as a valuable approach, emphasizing the importance of sensitive and responsive care for optimal growth and development (Hong & Park, 2012).
Well-being
A cross-sectional study by the University of Catania’s Department of Educational Sciences delves into the intricate relationship between adult attachment styles and psychological well-being, particularly examining these dynamics among both singles and individuals in stable, close relationships. The findings underscore the profound impact of romantic relationships on an individual's psychological well-being, with those in stable relationships reporting higher levels of psychological well-being compared to singles. Moreover, stable and positive romantic relationships are associated with lower levels of psychopathology, effective emotional regulation, and higher self-esteem. Individuals with attachment styles characterized by discomfort with closeness are more likely to be single and struggle to establish stable romantic relationships. These findings align with existing literature, which highlights the association between attachment patterns and psychological well-being. Specifically, individuals with secure attachment tend to have higher psychological well-being, while those with insecure attachment often report lower self-esteem and more significant psychological distress. Additionally, the study reveals that the need for approval is a critical dimension of attachment, heavily influenced by parental relationships during one’s youth and significantly related to psychological well-being, emphasizing the detrimental impact of high attachment anxiety on general psychological well-being (Sagone et al., 2023).
What can you do as a provider?
Providers play a crucial role in supporting victims of trauma in changing the impact of parenting styles they were subjected to, as well as their own parenting and attachment styles through a range of supportive routes. Firstly, therapy sessions, such as trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF-CBT), provide a safe space for individuals to explore past experiences, identify triggers, and develop coping strategies to manage emotions and regulate responses. Additionally, psychoeducation on attachment theory can help individuals understand how their past trauma may have influenced their parenting style and attachment patterns, empowering them to make conscious changes. Support groups offer opportunities for peer connection, validation, and shared experiences, which foster a sense of belonging and reducing feelings of isolation. Moreover, holistic approaches incorporating mindfulness, relaxation techniques, and self-care practices can help individuals cultivate emotional resilience and promote healthier relationship dynamics with their children. By offering a comprehensive array of supportive interventions tailored to individual needs, providers can facilitate healing, promote positive parenting practices, and foster secure attachment bonds between caregivers and their children.
References
Cleveland Clinic. (2022, September 22). The 4 attachment styles and how they impact you. Health Essentials. https://health.clevelandclinic.org/attachment-theory-and-attachment-styles
Delgado, E., Serna, C., Martínez, I., & Cruise, E. (2022). Parental Attachment and Peer Relationships in Adolescence: A Systematic Review. International journal of environmental research and public health, 19(3), 1064. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031064
Hong, Y. R., & Park, J. S. (2012). Impact of attachment, temperament and parenting on human development. Korean journal of pediatrics, 55(12), 449–454. https://doi.org/10.3345/kjp.2012.55.12.449
Langenhof, M. R., & Komdeur, J. (2018). Why and how the early-life environment affects development of coping behaviours. Behavioral ecology and sociobiology, 72(3), 34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-018-2452-3
Sagone, E., Commodari, E., Indiana, M. L., & La Rosa, V. L. (2023). Exploring the Association between Attachment Style, Psychological Well-Being, and Relationship Status in Young Adults and Adults-A Cross-Sectional Study. European journal of investigation in health, psychology and education, 13(3), 525–539. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13030040
Sanvictores T, Mendez MD. Types of Parenting Styles and Effects On Children. [Updated 2022 Sep 18]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK568743/